GRAVES AS HISTORY
Secure disposal of the dead is common to most human societies. Ritual
burial tells us about local economies, levels of craftsmanship, patterns
of trade, and local tastes, as well as about religious and class systems.
The oldest burial sites yet found in Indonesia contain personal possessions
alongside the deceased, and sometimes also human and animal
bones. They establish a long history in the archipelago of belief in a life after
death.
Disposal of the dead in the Indonesian archipelago covers a wide
range of practices: interment of bones in pottery jars with beads (Bali,
Tangir), interment beneath great stone slabs and pillars (Sumatra, Java,
Bali), skull coffins made of stone in the shape of birds or mythological
creatures (Nias), interment with heads of slain enemies in stone houses
decorated with skulls and war scenes (Minahasa), interment under tombstones
constructed according to Muslim and Christian prescription and
designs, and cremation.
Solid monuments for the well-to-do and powerful attest to the enter Diffusion
of metalworking and of metal goods within the Indonesian
archipelago occurred because of local knowledge of the sea. Sailing techniques
were based on observation of the power of wind and water currents. Accumulated
experience produced patterns of sailing and timing of routes. Local
products carried by local sailors forged connections between archipelago settlements.
Products of the Indonesian landscape of forest and sea drew archipelago
communities into the orbits of land-based civilizations. Archipelago
sailors put forest and sea products into water-borne chains of exchange. Some
of these products ended up in distant societies with different sets of cultural requirements
and different inheritances of knowledge.
prises of stonemasons, blacksmiths, iron founders, and toolmakers. Large
blocks of stone are often the only reminder of the laborers who quarried
them and hauled them to burial sites. The decoration of graves, their motifs,
symbols, and epitaphs are evidence of other kinds of unremembered
laborers: they reveal knowledge of theology, traditions, and alphabets.
Fourteenth-century tombs from Trawulan, for instance, demonstrate the
presence in east Java of stonemasons who could chisel words in Javanese
and Arabic. Tombs from south Sulawesi bear inscriptions in Arabic and
Buginese languages and writing systems.
Time and tropical climate have erased all trace of most people in life or
death. The requirements of modern cities and of politics obliterate old
gravesites. Many markers to Dutch people who lived in Java in the seventeenth
and eighteenth centuries, for example, have been bulldozed, and
only a few tombs are now preserved in Jakarta’s Tanah Abang cemetery.
Victims of war, pogrom, purge, and massacre have no individual markers.
Hundreds of Indonesians disappeared during the war for independence,
victims of rival armed gangs and group hysteria. Between one half
and a million people were killed in the process of changing presidents between
1965 and 1966. The bones of more lie in mass graves in Aceh,
Papua (Irian), and Timor Loro Sa’e. Rivers and the sea became graveyards
for unknown numbers in local wars at the end of Indonesia’s twentieth
century.
Pre-industrial communities far removed from each other in place, time,
and culture had many uses for resins from Indonesia’s rain forests. Archipelago
people who grew their food and lived among trees had discovered how to get a
tree’s resin by collecting in baskets the sticky liquid which exuded from a cut
made with a stone ax. They applied tree gums to glue together hefting points
and blades of knives. They used tree resins to coat and repair waterproof containers,
to seal carrying baskets, and to caulk boats to prevent leaks. They
bound the planks of rafts with forest rattan and tree gum. They burned the
damar resin in torches for interior light and for outdoor night performances.
Essential oils of resins provided incense for religious ceremonies. Other tree
saps were the source of lacquers and varnishes used to preserve and beautify
furniture, screens, and containers made of wood. Some trees had fragrant
barks used to perfume living spaces when burned. The resins and crystals produced
by pine trees that grow on mountain slopes in northwest Sumatra and
west Java were used as fungicides and fumigants and were applied to wounds
to stop bleeding.
Trees were tapped while a community farmed an area, then abandoned
when the group moved to clear and farm a new site. In large, semi-sedentary
communities, resin collection was no longer random tapping but the regular
gathering of resins, accompanied by the ownership of trees and inheritance
of them. Extraction of resins and barks required local knowledge, tools of
stone or iron, collecting baskets, and a portion of the time of people who lived
in and from the forest. Resins and barks were easy to carry on river and sea
journeys.
Land dwellers gathered resins, spices, and fragrant barks from trees. They
harvested coconuts; they planted pepper vines among native trees. (Much
later, as a result of contact with Europeans, they raised coffee and tea bushes,
tobacco vines, and rubber trees in their forests.) They hunted forest-dwelling
birds for their feathers. Indonesian peoples who lived more on sea than on land
collected the nests of cliff-dwelling birds; they hunted turtles for their shell,
dived for mother-of-pearl, fished for trepang, and extracted salt from seawater.
Sea and forest products made the archipelago important to foreigners, attracted
them to its water lanes and jungle paths, and brought in new knowledge.
Demand stimulated a change from sporadic gathering to regular cultivation
and collecting. Exchange made local men rich and employers of foreign
and local experts. Sea and forest products inserted Chinese and Indians into
Indonesian histories in centuries before the beginning of the Common Era.
These products brought Arabs into those histories from the seventh century
and Europeans from the sixteenth. Oil, a product of Indonesian land and
seabed, brought in Japanese and Americans in the twentieth. All these foreigners
introduced into Indonesian networks products of their own industries.
They spread their own technologies, systems of belief, and knowledge.
In the oldest burial site yet opened in the archipelago, glass beads of Indian
origin were found alongside objects of metal. These goods made outside
the region flowed into archipelago networks of exchange and became the coveted
possessions of a man important to his community in north Bali in the first
century. There is no reciprocal evidence from Indian or Chinese soils of the
Indonesian goods traded in exchange, for barks and birds’ nests leave no remains,
but other archaeological clues indicate that items originating in the Indonesian
archipelago were flowing back along the same shipping routes.
Feathers and ships give hints of trade and archipelago lives. Plumes from
the bird of paradise, which is native to New Guinea, are thought to be engraved
on bronze drums cast by artisans working two thousand years ago in
northern Vietnam, and so suggest a very old trade linking the easternmost part
of Indonesia with the Asian mainland. Shipwrecks of boats, determined to be
of Indonesian construction and dated to the second century, lie along
the southeast coast of India. Such remains hint at traffic in things from Indonesian
forests and seas centuries before written evidence surfaces in Chinese
documents of the fifth century.
Archipelago sailors who put in at ports along India’s southeast coast in the
centuries before the Common Era interacted with coastal settlements in similar
stages of development to their own. By the fifth century, the agrarian
Indian and Chinese states were very different from contemporary archipelago
shore settlements because of the size of populations occupying cleared landscapes
of farms, permanent villages, and factory work sites. Through taxes paid
in grain and manufactured products of metal, cloth, and ceramics, Indian and
Chinese peoples on the mainland supported city-based elites and hierarchies
of officials who developed and spread religions and other branches of knowledge.
The taxes of farmers and artisans paid for learning systems that stored information
through writing and supported specialists whose webs of contact
spread overland and by sea to other civilizations. Goods, knowledge, and technologies
from Indian and Chinese states accompanied specialists on their travels.
By the third century, the major merchant and craft communities of
India’s southeast coast had established subsidiary settlements in ports of mainland
Southeast Asia. They were Buddhists, and subjects of kingdoms in India
whose ruling classes were devotees of Hindu gods and patrons of Brahmanism (or
Brahmans).
Senin, 27 Desember 2010
Sabtu, 11 Desember 2010
Indonesia Peoples and Histories by Jelman Gelman Taylor
EARLY BEGINNINGS
Histories Through Material Culture
In the beginning there was no Indonesia. Land bridges connected the islands
of Java, Sumatra, and Borneo to the Eurasian land mass. Bones discovered
in the Solo valley are the only clue that ancestors lived 1.5 million years
ago in Java. Human society reveals itself faintly from around 40,000. Descendants of early communities today live on the fringes of the Indonesian archipelago,
in New Guinea, on the Melanesian islands, in Australia, and in the
highlands of the Malay Peninsula and the Philippines. Until recent times they
were tropical forest hunters, gatherers of tubers, and producers of flaked stone
tools. In the Indonesian islands they were absorbed or displaced by peoples who
entered the islands after their separation from the Asian mainland. The oldest
sites in this island world where human remains, manufactured objects, and evidence
of agriculture have been found together date to the sixth century ...
Older books speak of waves of migrations, evoking a powerful but misleading
image of people gathering at fixed points on Asia’s mainland to head to
known destinations in lands to the south: this way to Vietnam; that way to
Java. The variations observable among Indonesians today are not the result of
separate migrations by different races. They are the product of a long, slow expansion within the archipelago of one ethnolinguistic group whose members
adapted to various locales, mixed with existing communities, and responded
in different ways and times to the influences of external civilizations. Today’s
Early Kingdoms in the Western Archipelago
large populations of the archipelago share a common origin in southern China
and speak a great variety of languages in the Austronesian family.
Around 4000, along the marshy coasts of China between the Yangzi
Delta and South Fujian, pockets of peoples grew rice, had domesticated pigs
and chickens, and made clay pots to store and boil grain. They used waterways
as their footpaths, maneuvering small, flat-bottomed boats along rivers and
among coastal sandbars. From around 3000. specialists worked in metal.
By 1000, communities along the coasts of mainland Southeast Asia were
raising rice in the flood areas of rivers, making pottery and stone tools, mining
metal ores and casting objects in bronze. One theory endorsed by Pluvier
places the origins of today’s Indonesians in these settlements. Over generations,
farmers of land and sea edged south from China, eventually moving into
the Malay Peninsula and from there into the archipelago.
Bellwood argues that migrations into island Southeast Asia were by sea
routes. South China coastal peoples sailed to the western shores of Taiwan,
where they cultivated rice in swampland, passed on techniques of pottery
making and spinning to their children, produced adzes with beveled edges,
and put buffaloes to domestic use. Above all, they remained adept on water.
To seafaring people, knowledgeable about wind and ocean, tree felling, and
construction of boats, the South China Sea yielded islands and shores that reproduced
a familiar habitat. Mangrove coasts abounded in fish and turtles,
riverbanks gave shelter from storms of the open seas, forested lowlands produced
woods and rattans for boats and huts, and cliff caves for shelter. Wind
and water currents carried travelers to island stepping-stones in the sea. They
reached the northern Philippine Islands by 3000, the islands of eastern
Indonesia and Borneo by around 2000, and New Guinea, Java, and
Sumatra between 1500 and 1000.
The evidence for migration along sea routes is linguistic. The languages
spoken today in a region stretching from Taiwan, the Philippines, Indonesia,
and Malaysia to the Cham-speaking areas of Vietnam are related and are distinct
from languages spoken on the mainland.
Within the Indonesian archipelago, groups spread along shores and up
rivers, engulfing the pre-Austronesian hunter-gatherers. The lives of Austronesian-
speaking communities in the oldest settlements are known only from evidence
yielded by excavated sites, for this era in Indonesian histories is without
writing. The boat was house, vehicle, and site of production. Estuaries, rivers,
lakes, and coasts provided regular supplies of food year round, so that groups
who farmed Indonesian waters established land settlements to support their
life on the water and divided their labor between land and sea. In fishing com-
munities of the past few hundred years, for which there are written records,
there is a division of labor by age and gender. Men caught near-shore varieties
of fish with spears and nets; they selected and cut timbers to build and sail
boats for deep-sea fishing; they hunted turtles and dived for mother-of-pearl;
they mended fishing nets. Women and children gathered shellfish from the
beds near seashores and reefs; they worked on boat and on shore; they preserved
and stored marine foods for land use and sea journeys by drying them
in the sun, smoking them over fire, boiling, or salting.
Hunting by boat and settling on shore allowed communities to venture
into the forested coastline, plains, and hill slopes for food and building materials.
In their long expansion through the islands of the archipelago, Austronesians
relied on tubers growing in the floor of rain forests, gathered fruits, and
hunted wild pigs. In the rain-soaked islands of the eastern archipelago, they
harvested the sago palm for food and construction materials. Some archipelago
communities in drier regions, using axes and fire, cleared small patches of
the rain forest’s dense undergrowth to broadcast seeds of rice and root vegetables.
They hunted in the tangle of vegetation hemming their plots, and gathered
plants growing wild, before moving on to clear another plot. Some groups
adapted to inland waterways, sowing seeds along rivers whose soils were enriched
by water periodically rising and flooding the banks. Other groups followed
rivers upstream to settle in fertile mountain valleys and raise rice.
RICE
Rice is a staple for all classes in Indonesia today, but it has been incorporated
into Indonesian diets only as people acquired the technology
to grow it or were able to buy rice raised elsewhere. Remains of
wild rice date from 3,000. in Sulawesi. Evidence for rice cultivation
comes much later from Java, where eighth-century. stone inscriptions
record that kings levied taxes in rice. Scenes carved into the walls of the
ninth-century Prambanan temples suggest a division of labor between
animals, men, and women that could still be seen in Java in the twentieth
century: a buffalo is harnessed to a plow; women plant seedlings in a field
and pound rice; a man carries sheaves of rice at each end of a pole laid
Many of the rivers which rise in the high mountains of Indonesia’s islands
make their way to sea down rocky cliffs, along beds strewn with huge boulders.
They crash by waterfalls to lower ravines until they reach the coastal plains.
There they divide into many branches and move sluggishly across a watery
landscape where land and sea become indistinguishable in periods of heavy
rainfall and storms, and where rivers become shallow in hot, dry spells. Such
rivers could not be used as water highways connecting high interior to coast
and sea-lanes. Travel combined paths cut through jungle and paths navigated
on water. Many groups were made remote by their upland location, by shifts in
settlement patterns of coastal peoples, by difficult terrain, and by an unequal
contention with other inhabitants of wooded areas, particularly the tigers,
wild pigs, and poisonous snakes. Long journeys were major undertakings of
resourceful and healthy men.
People in coastal settlements had sporadic contact with semi-nomad
farmers of the rain forest and with people of upland valleys, and more regular
contact with peoples resident along other coasts. Communities living on boat
and on land sailed within small spheres that linked into the travel circuits of
other coastal communities. In Indonesia’s histories, sea peoples have played
important roles as traders, pirates, mercenaries, and slavers; they have taken
the role of outsider, recorder, and supplier for land-bound communities. They
go by various names in written sources: sea nomads, sea gypsies, sea hunters
and gatherers, and the Indonesian term orang laut (people of the sea).
It is not knowable how many people lived on shore and on water in the
thousand years for which the evidence of settlements is from excavated -
across his shoulders. In the sixteenth century, Europeans visiting the eastern
archipelago noted that cooked rice was a new prestige food there,
served to the ruling classes at ceremonies and feasts.
Rice requires exposure to the sun to ripen. The growing of rice in
cleared fields is linked, in Indonesian histories, to the production of iron
axes for clearing sites, domestication of the water buffalo, harnessing its
strength for breaking up mud clods with iron-tipped plows, and using its
manure as fertilizer. The expansion of rice cultivation over the past fifteen
hundred years has slowly transformed Indonesian landscapes from dense
forests to permanently cleared fields and concentrated settlements.
facts. Nor can the number of forest-dwelling communities that died out from
disease, animal attacks, or wounds be known, or how quickly peoples whose
ancestral origins were in southern China competed with, displaced, or absorbed
the earlier pockets of humanity living in the archipelago’s forests. What
is known are the movements of twentieth-century inhabitants of rain forest on
Borneo. In thirty years one group of Iban people traveled through three hundred
kilometers of Sarawak forest, clearing and cultivating plots, and living off
foods raised in any one clearing for one and two years.
Before writing, Indonesian histories can be dimly grasped through the
lives of things. Objects explain how life was sustained, how humans struggled
to acquire and preserve food, how they tried to protect physical and mental
health, how they conducted their spiritual life. Objects reveal differences of
wealth and destiny between people. Things, in their area of origin, in their area
of discovery, in their construction, reveal the skills of a community at specific
times in its history. Objects provide the record of technologies, of ideas, of human
organization, of human needs and desires. They establish transport networks.
Goods, technologies, and ideas traveled along land and sea paths, carried
by people who moved outside their communities of birth, fostering
wants, desires, knowledge, and a sense of others.
Early Indonesian histories are relayed through objects made of stone and
of metal, which represent solutions people produced long ago to the practical
problems posed by Indonesian landscapes of rain forest and waterways. Stone
axes, picks, and knives extended human strength for clearing a patch of forest
to plant food crops, for felling trees to build a boat, for digging a shallow pit to
get at metal ores, for skinning an animal, or for cutting into a tree for its resin
or food starch. Polished axes, produced from stone distinctive to areas in south
Sumatra and west Java, spread to faraway communities along a myriad of overlapping
sailing circuits.
From around 500. these circuits meshed with sailing routes that took
archipelago peoples into the spheres of major civilizations developing in South
and East Asia. An ancient history of human contact, of curiosity, desire, and
recognition of the significance of new objects took place at sites where land and
sea paths joined. By the third century.The Chinese had developed smelting
techniques that allowed them to produce a metal tough enough for hoes,
axes, and the tips of wooden plows. They produced iron goods for Chinese markets
and for export overseas in big blast furnaces. In the last centuries before the
Common Era, metal goods were percolating through trade networks that extended
into the Indonesian archipelago and were becoming desired objects.
Knowledge of how to detect metal deposits and of how to mine and work
in metal also spread along archipelago seaways. Iron ores are found in soils in
west Sumatra and south Sulawesi, copper ores in Sumatran and south Java
soils, tin in the Bangka and Belitung islands, and gold in west Sumatra’s highlands
and the river banks of west Kalimantan. Extraction and working of ores
required the skills and labor of many men and women in a community: makers
of hoes, shovels, and baskets; miners; collectors and cutters of firewood,
charcoal makers for heating furnaces; metalworkers to melt and beat ores into
bars, smiths to fashion tools, weapons, and bracelets; traders to put goods
made from metal into networks of buying and selling. All depended on farmers
of sea and land for food hunted, grown, preserved, prepared, and served.
Archipelago metal industries developed at sites with ores, forest, water highway,
and sizable settlements of people.
In most of the archipelago there were no deposits of metals. Some communities
obtained bars of copper, iron, and other metals through long chains
of exchange that ultimately led to China and Japan. Technologies, artistic designs,
and items circulated among outward-oriented, seafaring communities
scattered along the coasts of Sumatra, Java, Bali, Kalimantan, and the smaller
islands of Talaud, Sumba, Sumbawa, Flores, and Selayar. Their metalworkers
made arrowheads, swords, armor, axes, knives, plowshares, and fish hooks,
urns, incense holders, and dishes, rings, and bracelets.
Metal objects for work, war, storage, and decoration were introduced into
distant regions of the archipelago by Chinese imports and by local industries.
The curved blade of the dagger called kris, made by blacksmiths in Java, was
shaped from bars of an iron-nickel alloy found only in the soils of Soroako in
Sulawesi. Iron axes and knives, produced by mining communities in Belitung
and Karimata in the western archipelago, traveled along water highways, passing
through many hands. Some ended their journey as possessions of chiefs in
settlements on the northwestern tip of New Guinea. Iron tools and weapons,
vessels and jewelry made of bronze, silver, or gold were used by communities
with developing social hierarchies of leaders, religious specialists, soldiers, artisans,
farmers, and traders.
For their new owners, in settlements far distant from communities which
manufactured and used metal goods, the possession of an object made from
metal might be a sign of elevated status, and the object used to display the wealth
and self-importance of a ruler. For instance, large drums made of bronze, cast by
metalworking communities in northern Vietnam between 500 and 300
,have been found in prehistoric sites in Sumatra, Java, and Bali. It is not possible
to know if the owners of these drums valued them as musical instruments
or for the beauty of their engraved surfaces. Drums were not objects to be shared
or passed on. After the death of their owners the drums were placed in their
graves. Musical instruments originating in Vietnam represent, in Indonesian societies,
wealth hoarded and wealth withdrawn from the community.
Ancient things made from stone and metal carry Indonesian histories of
belief in the infinite social distance between rulers and ruled. The makers of
stone axes in sites in Sumatra, Java, Bali, Sumbawa, and Sumba also quarried
huge stone slabs. They carved designs of animals and human heads on the
slabs, then dragged them up the slopes of hills to raise them over the graves of
their rulers. Burial sites provide evidence of a belief in the duty of ordinary
people to serve, as well as belief in a future existence for rulers with the same
privileges as they extorted on earth. Alongside the rings, bracelets, arrowheads,
and daggers found in royal graves of the archipelago are the bones of people
killed to serve bosses in their next life.
Histories Through Material Culture
In the beginning there was no Indonesia. Land bridges connected the islands
of Java, Sumatra, and Borneo to the Eurasian land mass. Bones discovered
in the Solo valley are the only clue that ancestors lived 1.5 million years
ago in Java. Human society reveals itself faintly from around 40,000. Descendants of early communities today live on the fringes of the Indonesian archipelago,
in New Guinea, on the Melanesian islands, in Australia, and in the
highlands of the Malay Peninsula and the Philippines. Until recent times they
were tropical forest hunters, gatherers of tubers, and producers of flaked stone
tools. In the Indonesian islands they were absorbed or displaced by peoples who
entered the islands after their separation from the Asian mainland. The oldest
sites in this island world where human remains, manufactured objects, and evidence
of agriculture have been found together date to the sixth century ...
Older books speak of waves of migrations, evoking a powerful but misleading
image of people gathering at fixed points on Asia’s mainland to head to
known destinations in lands to the south: this way to Vietnam; that way to
Java. The variations observable among Indonesians today are not the result of
separate migrations by different races. They are the product of a long, slow expansion within the archipelago of one ethnolinguistic group whose members
adapted to various locales, mixed with existing communities, and responded
in different ways and times to the influences of external civilizations. Today’s
Early Kingdoms in the Western Archipelago
large populations of the archipelago share a common origin in southern China
and speak a great variety of languages in the Austronesian family.
Around 4000, along the marshy coasts of China between the Yangzi
Delta and South Fujian, pockets of peoples grew rice, had domesticated pigs
and chickens, and made clay pots to store and boil grain. They used waterways
as their footpaths, maneuvering small, flat-bottomed boats along rivers and
among coastal sandbars. From around 3000. specialists worked in metal.
By 1000, communities along the coasts of mainland Southeast Asia were
raising rice in the flood areas of rivers, making pottery and stone tools, mining
metal ores and casting objects in bronze. One theory endorsed by Pluvier
places the origins of today’s Indonesians in these settlements. Over generations,
farmers of land and sea edged south from China, eventually moving into
the Malay Peninsula and from there into the archipelago.
Bellwood argues that migrations into island Southeast Asia were by sea
routes. South China coastal peoples sailed to the western shores of Taiwan,
where they cultivated rice in swampland, passed on techniques of pottery
making and spinning to their children, produced adzes with beveled edges,
and put buffaloes to domestic use. Above all, they remained adept on water.
To seafaring people, knowledgeable about wind and ocean, tree felling, and
construction of boats, the South China Sea yielded islands and shores that reproduced
a familiar habitat. Mangrove coasts abounded in fish and turtles,
riverbanks gave shelter from storms of the open seas, forested lowlands produced
woods and rattans for boats and huts, and cliff caves for shelter. Wind
and water currents carried travelers to island stepping-stones in the sea. They
reached the northern Philippine Islands by 3000, the islands of eastern
Indonesia and Borneo by around 2000, and New Guinea, Java, and
Sumatra between 1500 and 1000.
The evidence for migration along sea routes is linguistic. The languages
spoken today in a region stretching from Taiwan, the Philippines, Indonesia,
and Malaysia to the Cham-speaking areas of Vietnam are related and are distinct
from languages spoken on the mainland.
Within the Indonesian archipelago, groups spread along shores and up
rivers, engulfing the pre-Austronesian hunter-gatherers. The lives of Austronesian-
speaking communities in the oldest settlements are known only from evidence
yielded by excavated sites, for this era in Indonesian histories is without
writing. The boat was house, vehicle, and site of production. Estuaries, rivers,
lakes, and coasts provided regular supplies of food year round, so that groups
who farmed Indonesian waters established land settlements to support their
life on the water and divided their labor between land and sea. In fishing com-
munities of the past few hundred years, for which there are written records,
there is a division of labor by age and gender. Men caught near-shore varieties
of fish with spears and nets; they selected and cut timbers to build and sail
boats for deep-sea fishing; they hunted turtles and dived for mother-of-pearl;
they mended fishing nets. Women and children gathered shellfish from the
beds near seashores and reefs; they worked on boat and on shore; they preserved
and stored marine foods for land use and sea journeys by drying them
in the sun, smoking them over fire, boiling, or salting.
Hunting by boat and settling on shore allowed communities to venture
into the forested coastline, plains, and hill slopes for food and building materials.
In their long expansion through the islands of the archipelago, Austronesians
relied on tubers growing in the floor of rain forests, gathered fruits, and
hunted wild pigs. In the rain-soaked islands of the eastern archipelago, they
harvested the sago palm for food and construction materials. Some archipelago
communities in drier regions, using axes and fire, cleared small patches of
the rain forest’s dense undergrowth to broadcast seeds of rice and root vegetables.
They hunted in the tangle of vegetation hemming their plots, and gathered
plants growing wild, before moving on to clear another plot. Some groups
adapted to inland waterways, sowing seeds along rivers whose soils were enriched
by water periodically rising and flooding the banks. Other groups followed
rivers upstream to settle in fertile mountain valleys and raise rice.
RICE
Rice is a staple for all classes in Indonesia today, but it has been incorporated
into Indonesian diets only as people acquired the technology
to grow it or were able to buy rice raised elsewhere. Remains of
wild rice date from 3,000. in Sulawesi. Evidence for rice cultivation
comes much later from Java, where eighth-century. stone inscriptions
record that kings levied taxes in rice. Scenes carved into the walls of the
ninth-century Prambanan temples suggest a division of labor between
animals, men, and women that could still be seen in Java in the twentieth
century: a buffalo is harnessed to a plow; women plant seedlings in a field
and pound rice; a man carries sheaves of rice at each end of a pole laid
Many of the rivers which rise in the high mountains of Indonesia’s islands
make their way to sea down rocky cliffs, along beds strewn with huge boulders.
They crash by waterfalls to lower ravines until they reach the coastal plains.
There they divide into many branches and move sluggishly across a watery
landscape where land and sea become indistinguishable in periods of heavy
rainfall and storms, and where rivers become shallow in hot, dry spells. Such
rivers could not be used as water highways connecting high interior to coast
and sea-lanes. Travel combined paths cut through jungle and paths navigated
on water. Many groups were made remote by their upland location, by shifts in
settlement patterns of coastal peoples, by difficult terrain, and by an unequal
contention with other inhabitants of wooded areas, particularly the tigers,
wild pigs, and poisonous snakes. Long journeys were major undertakings of
resourceful and healthy men.
People in coastal settlements had sporadic contact with semi-nomad
farmers of the rain forest and with people of upland valleys, and more regular
contact with peoples resident along other coasts. Communities living on boat
and on land sailed within small spheres that linked into the travel circuits of
other coastal communities. In Indonesia’s histories, sea peoples have played
important roles as traders, pirates, mercenaries, and slavers; they have taken
the role of outsider, recorder, and supplier for land-bound communities. They
go by various names in written sources: sea nomads, sea gypsies, sea hunters
and gatherers, and the Indonesian term orang laut (people of the sea).
It is not knowable how many people lived on shore and on water in the
thousand years for which the evidence of settlements is from excavated -
across his shoulders. In the sixteenth century, Europeans visiting the eastern
archipelago noted that cooked rice was a new prestige food there,
served to the ruling classes at ceremonies and feasts.
Rice requires exposure to the sun to ripen. The growing of rice in
cleared fields is linked, in Indonesian histories, to the production of iron
axes for clearing sites, domestication of the water buffalo, harnessing its
strength for breaking up mud clods with iron-tipped plows, and using its
manure as fertilizer. The expansion of rice cultivation over the past fifteen
hundred years has slowly transformed Indonesian landscapes from dense
forests to permanently cleared fields and concentrated settlements.
facts. Nor can the number of forest-dwelling communities that died out from
disease, animal attacks, or wounds be known, or how quickly peoples whose
ancestral origins were in southern China competed with, displaced, or absorbed
the earlier pockets of humanity living in the archipelago’s forests. What
is known are the movements of twentieth-century inhabitants of rain forest on
Borneo. In thirty years one group of Iban people traveled through three hundred
kilometers of Sarawak forest, clearing and cultivating plots, and living off
foods raised in any one clearing for one and two years.
Before writing, Indonesian histories can be dimly grasped through the
lives of things. Objects explain how life was sustained, how humans struggled
to acquire and preserve food, how they tried to protect physical and mental
health, how they conducted their spiritual life. Objects reveal differences of
wealth and destiny between people. Things, in their area of origin, in their area
of discovery, in their construction, reveal the skills of a community at specific
times in its history. Objects provide the record of technologies, of ideas, of human
organization, of human needs and desires. They establish transport networks.
Goods, technologies, and ideas traveled along land and sea paths, carried
by people who moved outside their communities of birth, fostering
wants, desires, knowledge, and a sense of others.
Early Indonesian histories are relayed through objects made of stone and
of metal, which represent solutions people produced long ago to the practical
problems posed by Indonesian landscapes of rain forest and waterways. Stone
axes, picks, and knives extended human strength for clearing a patch of forest
to plant food crops, for felling trees to build a boat, for digging a shallow pit to
get at metal ores, for skinning an animal, or for cutting into a tree for its resin
or food starch. Polished axes, produced from stone distinctive to areas in south
Sumatra and west Java, spread to faraway communities along a myriad of overlapping
sailing circuits.
From around 500. these circuits meshed with sailing routes that took
archipelago peoples into the spheres of major civilizations developing in South
and East Asia. An ancient history of human contact, of curiosity, desire, and
recognition of the significance of new objects took place at sites where land and
sea paths joined. By the third century.The Chinese had developed smelting
techniques that allowed them to produce a metal tough enough for hoes,
axes, and the tips of wooden plows. They produced iron goods for Chinese markets
and for export overseas in big blast furnaces. In the last centuries before the
Common Era, metal goods were percolating through trade networks that extended
into the Indonesian archipelago and were becoming desired objects.
Knowledge of how to detect metal deposits and of how to mine and work
in metal also spread along archipelago seaways. Iron ores are found in soils in
west Sumatra and south Sulawesi, copper ores in Sumatran and south Java
soils, tin in the Bangka and Belitung islands, and gold in west Sumatra’s highlands
and the river banks of west Kalimantan. Extraction and working of ores
required the skills and labor of many men and women in a community: makers
of hoes, shovels, and baskets; miners; collectors and cutters of firewood,
charcoal makers for heating furnaces; metalworkers to melt and beat ores into
bars, smiths to fashion tools, weapons, and bracelets; traders to put goods
made from metal into networks of buying and selling. All depended on farmers
of sea and land for food hunted, grown, preserved, prepared, and served.
Archipelago metal industries developed at sites with ores, forest, water highway,
and sizable settlements of people.
In most of the archipelago there were no deposits of metals. Some communities
obtained bars of copper, iron, and other metals through long chains
of exchange that ultimately led to China and Japan. Technologies, artistic designs,
and items circulated among outward-oriented, seafaring communities
scattered along the coasts of Sumatra, Java, Bali, Kalimantan, and the smaller
islands of Talaud, Sumba, Sumbawa, Flores, and Selayar. Their metalworkers
made arrowheads, swords, armor, axes, knives, plowshares, and fish hooks,
urns, incense holders, and dishes, rings, and bracelets.
Metal objects for work, war, storage, and decoration were introduced into
distant regions of the archipelago by Chinese imports and by local industries.
The curved blade of the dagger called kris, made by blacksmiths in Java, was
shaped from bars of an iron-nickel alloy found only in the soils of Soroako in
Sulawesi. Iron axes and knives, produced by mining communities in Belitung
and Karimata in the western archipelago, traveled along water highways, passing
through many hands. Some ended their journey as possessions of chiefs in
settlements on the northwestern tip of New Guinea. Iron tools and weapons,
vessels and jewelry made of bronze, silver, or gold were used by communities
with developing social hierarchies of leaders, religious specialists, soldiers, artisans,
farmers, and traders.
For their new owners, in settlements far distant from communities which
manufactured and used metal goods, the possession of an object made from
metal might be a sign of elevated status, and the object used to display the wealth
and self-importance of a ruler. For instance, large drums made of bronze, cast by
metalworking communities in northern Vietnam between 500 and 300
,have been found in prehistoric sites in Sumatra, Java, and Bali. It is not possible
to know if the owners of these drums valued them as musical instruments
or for the beauty of their engraved surfaces. Drums were not objects to be shared
or passed on. After the death of their owners the drums were placed in their
graves. Musical instruments originating in Vietnam represent, in Indonesian societies,
wealth hoarded and wealth withdrawn from the community.
Ancient things made from stone and metal carry Indonesian histories of
belief in the infinite social distance between rulers and ruled. The makers of
stone axes in sites in Sumatra, Java, Bali, Sumbawa, and Sumba also quarried
huge stone slabs. They carved designs of animals and human heads on the
slabs, then dragged them up the slopes of hills to raise them over the graves of
their rulers. Burial sites provide evidence of a belief in the duty of ordinary
people to serve, as well as belief in a future existence for rulers with the same
privileges as they extorted on earth. Alongside the rings, bracelets, arrowheads,
and daggers found in royal graves of the archipelago are the bones of people
killed to serve bosses in their next life.
Indonesia Peoples and Histories by Jelman Gelman Taylor
INTRODUCTION
Indonesia is the fourth largest country in the world. It is important as exporter
of petroleum, natural gas, and manufactured goods, as consumer
of Western and Japanese aid and investment funds, and as the world’s
largest Muslim nation. It is an archipelago country, made up of 17,506 islands,
populated by 230 million people speaking more than three hundred languages.
It has been an independent republic for more than fifty years, before
that a colony of the Dutch and a zone of Islamic monarchies. The world’s
largest Buddhist temple survives from the ninth century in the heart of Java,
and a form of Hinduism lives on in Bali. A fringe of Christian communities
encircles Java.
Indonesia is a modern idea, conceived first in the minds of the Dutch military
around 1850, adopted by Dutch civilian politicians in the 1890s, and realized
by 1914. Indonesian youth who lived in the principal cities of the Dutch
colonial state and studied in Dutch-language schools conceived the goal of
making the colonial state the chief focus for everyone’s identity but under selfrule.
When they took up this ambitious project peoples’ minds were already
informed with the identity of Islam. This self-understanding had evolved in
stages from identity as subjects of a Muslim king, to a conception of self as
Muslims in a land ruled by an aristocracy of Muslims united in alliance with
Christian Europeans. Promoters of Indonesian identity competed with other
youths who wanted to arouse in Muslims an objection to rule by Christians.
Some also wanted to wrest Islam from its local roots, to shed the distinctive
features of Indonesian cultures celebrated by nationalists, and align Islam with
Arabness.
This book is a social history more than a political one. It narrates journeys
of peoples of the archipelago into today’s republic. It aims to set the lives of
men, women, and children in huts, workshops, and palaces, to present parallel
histories, influenced and influencing, submerged but not obliterated by the
big picture. The subtitle of the book is Peoples and Histories because many pasts
have fused into the nation of Indonesia.
I believe that the past consists of facts about people and processes that are
knowable and verifiable and that interpretations select and suppress facts according
to the personality and moral judgments of each historian. Every writer
has an agenda that emphasizes one class or one gender or one region. Individual
authors may have an aptitude for economic or technological history, or a
fascination with individuals in their settings. My approach to Indonesian histories
grew out of an early interest in the meeting of Indonesian and Dutch in
Asian settings. That interest led into other pasts and times before and since
those encounters.
Modern Indonesia’s presidents have ruled a state that has existed longer
than the Dutch colony did in its final form. They have drawn on technologies
available to the modern world to generate a profound identity of Indonesian
through the state ideology of Panca Sila, whose ideal followers believe in one
God, in one Indonesian identity, in a place in the world for Indonesia, in a
homegrown solution to political organization, and in a just and prosperous society.
This state philosophy competes with Islam and its commitment to Allah,
Muhammad, Islamic law, and a place for Indonesia within the world Islamic
community.
Sukarno, who was Indonesia’s first president (in office 1945–1967), perceived
Indonesia as a land of village republics with traditions of mutual aid,
discussion, and consensus that could be applied to the national level. Maria
Ulfah Santoso, Indonesia’s first woman law graduate, viewed the same landscape
and saw women wanting monogamy and the vote. In 1945 she advocated
protection for all Indonesians through a bill of rights. Pakubuwono X,
ruler of the princedom of Surakarta from 1893 to 1939, wanted to be acknowledged
king of Java. The visionary Kartosuwiryo (1905–1962) accepted
the title of imam from his followers, preached withdrawal, and launched his
militias on campaigns to usher in an Islamic state. The communist activist Tan
INTRODUCTION
2
Malaka (1897–1949) thought that ordinary Indonesians would never have
lives worth living until hereditary kings, aristocrats, and colonial governors
were swept aside.
The idea of an independent Indonesia has caused uprisings and wars. In
1926 and 1927 branches of the Indonesian Communist Party attempted to
throw off Dutch rule. In 1943 members of paramilitary forces rebelled against
Japanese occupation of the archipelago. In 1945 armed bands began the fight
to prevent Holland from reimposing colonial rule following the collapse of Japan’s
wartime empire. In 1948 the Army of (the Muslim) God and Indonesian
Communist troops attacked Republican troops in separate attempts to realize
their own visions of Indonesia. So did rebels and separatists in Ambon, Sulawesi,
Sumatra, and west Java in the 1950s. In 1965, in the cause of preserving
the Republic of Indonesia from communism, General Suharto unleashed
regular army units, local militias, and individuals against left-wing Indonesians.
Armed and civilian opposition in East Timor challenged the idea of Indonesia
from 1974 to 1999. Politicians and militias today challenge the idea of
Indonesia in Aceh and Papua.
Indonesians today debate how they should be governed, which rights
should be limited for the benefit of the whole, what direction the country
should move in, and whether a nation of Muslims can create lasting democratic
forms. The openness and vigor of these debates are attributable to the end of
President Suharto’s thirty-two-year rule in 1998. While groups campaign for
human rights, an independent judiciary, and an accountable government, the
Western press depicts Indonesia as a place hostile to a secular West, a land of Islamic
militias intent on extinguishing the rights of those proclaiming difference.
Until recently Indonesia presented itself to the West not as a Muslim
country but through Bali, a land of smiling faces, exotic dancers, paradisical
landscapes. Western scholars once wrote about the stillness of Javanese interior
life, the sophisticated tolerance of its philosophy. Now authors focus on violence
in its many forms of state terror directed against dissenters and the public
at large. Once Indonesia was presented as the world’s crossroads because it
straddles the great water highway that connects China to the West and because
its peoples follow the world’s religions: Islam, Buddhism, Hinduism, and
Christianity. Now that crossroads is more often discussed as the province of
people smugglers.
Within its home region Indonesia is a formidable presence. It is far more
populous and exports its excess laborers to neighboring countries. Dissenters
flee into the region to escape and to publicize ethnic, religious, and political
conflicts. Indonesia’s visionaries attract young men from the region to join
INTRODUCTION
3
religious causes; its popular culture beams to the region’s Malay youth messages
of modernity and “cool.” Its timber, minerals, and cheap labor attract
multinational companies, while Indonesia’s wealthy invest in safer regional
economies. Indonesia at times appears menacing to its neighbors, Timor Loro
Sa’e, Malaysia, Singapore, Brunei, the Philippines, Papua New Guinea, and
Australia.
Indonesia’s history is not widely known even in its own region. Magazine
articles and documentaries present fragments: environmental disasters of fire
and flood, the installation of a woman as the Republic of Indonesia’s fifth president
in 2001, the demands in 2002 to expel non-Muslim foreigners and establish
Indonesia as a country ruled by Islamic law.
Many Indonesian intellectuals, politicians, and journalists believe that
foreigners (principally the West) do not understand Indonesia, have no grasp
of the complex problems it faces, no sympathy for the struggles to find political
forms that will suit the aspirations of Indonesians and bring ordinary people
prosperity, peace, and justice. Many Indonesians believe that Western governments
and international human rights’ organizations seek the breakup of
Indonesia by aiding opposition movements in the eastern and western ends of
the archipelago. They point to the contradiction: the West lectures Indonesians
on human rights and economic management while supporting and cooperating
with the country’s corrupt nexus of political, military, and business
elites and overlooking the plight of internal refugees fleeing ethnic conflicts
and natural disasters.
The context in which I write is the collapse of President Suharto’s long rule
and the rapid succession of three new presidents. Under Suharto’s leadership
an official policy of order, security, and economic development replaced fervor
for Moscow or Mecca. Indonesia resumed its leadership position among nonaligned
countries through its economic achievements: continuing expansion
of schools and medical services for male and female, programs for attaining
self-sufficiency in rice and for industrialization. In 1990, for the first time the
value of manufactured goods exceeded raw materials in exports, and millions
of Indonesians began to see their standard of living improve. The Asian monetary
crisis abruptly reversed these gains in 1997 when banks and businesses
collapsed, and more than half of all Indonesians fell into their government’s
definition of impoverishment. Suharto’s presidency dissolved in a chaos of ethnically
targeted killings, breakaway movements, and an army seemingly out of
control. A new struggle for power and a contest of visions now mark Indonesia
as pregnant with possibilities.
Indonesia is the fourth largest country in the world. It is important as exporter
of petroleum, natural gas, and manufactured goods, as consumer
of Western and Japanese aid and investment funds, and as the world’s
largest Muslim nation. It is an archipelago country, made up of 17,506 islands,
populated by 230 million people speaking more than three hundred languages.
It has been an independent republic for more than fifty years, before
that a colony of the Dutch and a zone of Islamic monarchies. The world’s
largest Buddhist temple survives from the ninth century in the heart of Java,
and a form of Hinduism lives on in Bali. A fringe of Christian communities
encircles Java.
Indonesia is a modern idea, conceived first in the minds of the Dutch military
around 1850, adopted by Dutch civilian politicians in the 1890s, and realized
by 1914. Indonesian youth who lived in the principal cities of the Dutch
colonial state and studied in Dutch-language schools conceived the goal of
making the colonial state the chief focus for everyone’s identity but under selfrule.
When they took up this ambitious project peoples’ minds were already
informed with the identity of Islam. This self-understanding had evolved in
stages from identity as subjects of a Muslim king, to a conception of self as
Muslims in a land ruled by an aristocracy of Muslims united in alliance with
Christian Europeans. Promoters of Indonesian identity competed with other
youths who wanted to arouse in Muslims an objection to rule by Christians.
Some also wanted to wrest Islam from its local roots, to shed the distinctive
features of Indonesian cultures celebrated by nationalists, and align Islam with
Arabness.
This book is a social history more than a political one. It narrates journeys
of peoples of the archipelago into today’s republic. It aims to set the lives of
men, women, and children in huts, workshops, and palaces, to present parallel
histories, influenced and influencing, submerged but not obliterated by the
big picture. The subtitle of the book is Peoples and Histories because many pasts
have fused into the nation of Indonesia.
I believe that the past consists of facts about people and processes that are
knowable and verifiable and that interpretations select and suppress facts according
to the personality and moral judgments of each historian. Every writer
has an agenda that emphasizes one class or one gender or one region. Individual
authors may have an aptitude for economic or technological history, or a
fascination with individuals in their settings. My approach to Indonesian histories
grew out of an early interest in the meeting of Indonesian and Dutch in
Asian settings. That interest led into other pasts and times before and since
those encounters.
Modern Indonesia’s presidents have ruled a state that has existed longer
than the Dutch colony did in its final form. They have drawn on technologies
available to the modern world to generate a profound identity of Indonesian
through the state ideology of Panca Sila, whose ideal followers believe in one
God, in one Indonesian identity, in a place in the world for Indonesia, in a
homegrown solution to political organization, and in a just and prosperous society.
This state philosophy competes with Islam and its commitment to Allah,
Muhammad, Islamic law, and a place for Indonesia within the world Islamic
community.
Sukarno, who was Indonesia’s first president (in office 1945–1967), perceived
Indonesia as a land of village republics with traditions of mutual aid,
discussion, and consensus that could be applied to the national level. Maria
Ulfah Santoso, Indonesia’s first woman law graduate, viewed the same landscape
and saw women wanting monogamy and the vote. In 1945 she advocated
protection for all Indonesians through a bill of rights. Pakubuwono X,
ruler of the princedom of Surakarta from 1893 to 1939, wanted to be acknowledged
king of Java. The visionary Kartosuwiryo (1905–1962) accepted
the title of imam from his followers, preached withdrawal, and launched his
militias on campaigns to usher in an Islamic state. The communist activist Tan
INTRODUCTION
2
Malaka (1897–1949) thought that ordinary Indonesians would never have
lives worth living until hereditary kings, aristocrats, and colonial governors
were swept aside.
The idea of an independent Indonesia has caused uprisings and wars. In
1926 and 1927 branches of the Indonesian Communist Party attempted to
throw off Dutch rule. In 1943 members of paramilitary forces rebelled against
Japanese occupation of the archipelago. In 1945 armed bands began the fight
to prevent Holland from reimposing colonial rule following the collapse of Japan’s
wartime empire. In 1948 the Army of (the Muslim) God and Indonesian
Communist troops attacked Republican troops in separate attempts to realize
their own visions of Indonesia. So did rebels and separatists in Ambon, Sulawesi,
Sumatra, and west Java in the 1950s. In 1965, in the cause of preserving
the Republic of Indonesia from communism, General Suharto unleashed
regular army units, local militias, and individuals against left-wing Indonesians.
Armed and civilian opposition in East Timor challenged the idea of Indonesia
from 1974 to 1999. Politicians and militias today challenge the idea of
Indonesia in Aceh and Papua.
Indonesians today debate how they should be governed, which rights
should be limited for the benefit of the whole, what direction the country
should move in, and whether a nation of Muslims can create lasting democratic
forms. The openness and vigor of these debates are attributable to the end of
President Suharto’s thirty-two-year rule in 1998. While groups campaign for
human rights, an independent judiciary, and an accountable government, the
Western press depicts Indonesia as a place hostile to a secular West, a land of Islamic
militias intent on extinguishing the rights of those proclaiming difference.
Until recently Indonesia presented itself to the West not as a Muslim
country but through Bali, a land of smiling faces, exotic dancers, paradisical
landscapes. Western scholars once wrote about the stillness of Javanese interior
life, the sophisticated tolerance of its philosophy. Now authors focus on violence
in its many forms of state terror directed against dissenters and the public
at large. Once Indonesia was presented as the world’s crossroads because it
straddles the great water highway that connects China to the West and because
its peoples follow the world’s religions: Islam, Buddhism, Hinduism, and
Christianity. Now that crossroads is more often discussed as the province of
people smugglers.
Within its home region Indonesia is a formidable presence. It is far more
populous and exports its excess laborers to neighboring countries. Dissenters
flee into the region to escape and to publicize ethnic, religious, and political
conflicts. Indonesia’s visionaries attract young men from the region to join
INTRODUCTION
3
religious causes; its popular culture beams to the region’s Malay youth messages
of modernity and “cool.” Its timber, minerals, and cheap labor attract
multinational companies, while Indonesia’s wealthy invest in safer regional
economies. Indonesia at times appears menacing to its neighbors, Timor Loro
Sa’e, Malaysia, Singapore, Brunei, the Philippines, Papua New Guinea, and
Australia.
Indonesia’s history is not widely known even in its own region. Magazine
articles and documentaries present fragments: environmental disasters of fire
and flood, the installation of a woman as the Republic of Indonesia’s fifth president
in 2001, the demands in 2002 to expel non-Muslim foreigners and establish
Indonesia as a country ruled by Islamic law.
Many Indonesian intellectuals, politicians, and journalists believe that
foreigners (principally the West) do not understand Indonesia, have no grasp
of the complex problems it faces, no sympathy for the struggles to find political
forms that will suit the aspirations of Indonesians and bring ordinary people
prosperity, peace, and justice. Many Indonesians believe that Western governments
and international human rights’ organizations seek the breakup of
Indonesia by aiding opposition movements in the eastern and western ends of
the archipelago. They point to the contradiction: the West lectures Indonesians
on human rights and economic management while supporting and cooperating
with the country’s corrupt nexus of political, military, and business
elites and overlooking the plight of internal refugees fleeing ethnic conflicts
and natural disasters.
The context in which I write is the collapse of President Suharto’s long rule
and the rapid succession of three new presidents. Under Suharto’s leadership
an official policy of order, security, and economic development replaced fervor
for Moscow or Mecca. Indonesia resumed its leadership position among nonaligned
countries through its economic achievements: continuing expansion
of schools and medical services for male and female, programs for attaining
self-sufficiency in rice and for industrialization. In 1990, for the first time the
value of manufactured goods exceeded raw materials in exports, and millions
of Indonesians began to see their standard of living improve. The Asian monetary
crisis abruptly reversed these gains in 1997 when banks and businesses
collapsed, and more than half of all Indonesians fell into their government’s
definition of impoverishment. Suharto’s presidency dissolved in a chaos of ethnically
targeted killings, breakaway movements, and an army seemingly out of
control. A new struggle for power and a contest of visions now mark Indonesia
as pregnant with possibilities.
Rabu, 08 Desember 2010
THE MARKETING RESEARCH PROCESS
1. Identify and define the problem
Before beginning the task of gathering information it is first necessary to identify the problem for which research is required. This crucial to ensure that any information collected is relevant and not wasted. A failure at this stage to adequately define the problem will result in wasted effort later. As well as formulating an aim, specific research questions (objectives) should be stipulated at the outset. It is these objectives which will determine the type of information required.
2. Investigate available sources
There is little point embarking upon a research program involving the collection of primary data if information is already available. Therefore the next step is to seek out the information which is available. This will involve a trawl of internal data generated and recorded by the organization and an examination of secondary resources of data available. Such information should then be assessed to establish the extent to which the research questions can be tackled using this information alone. It may well be the case that a partial answer is provided but that further research is needed to satisfy the full objective.
3. Determine research plan
Once all available sources of data have been evaluated, a plan is formulated to identify what further information is required and how it should be collected. This will involve generating hypotheses to be tested and determining the manner in which information is to be collected (methodology). Methods that may be used include surveys, interviews and observation.
4. Data collection
Upon development of a research plan, data should be collected using the method(s) selected. During the stage of the process, great care should be taken to avoid bias which if introduced could render any results meaningless. This is a particular problem associated with he interview and observation methods.
5. Data Analysis
The methods used and the type of information collected will determine the analysis needed. Foe example, qualitative information will require a different type of analysis to information of a more quantitative nature. While the former may involve some sort of content analysis, the latter will almost certainly involve statistical analysis whether descriptive or inferential. The increasing application of computer programs to data analysis has quickened the actual process of number crunching although time still has to be spent on preparing the data for analysis. A general rule in the analysis of data is to begin with the simple before moving onto the more complicated.
6. Present research result
Information needs to be tabulated and interpreted such that recommendations can be made regarding an appropriate course of action to take. This will almost certainly involve the presentation of a report which summarize the results of the research thereby enabling the management of the organization to male decision based on the newly acquired information. The importance o such information, and in particular in which it is collected, is thus evident.
Before beginning the task of gathering information it is first necessary to identify the problem for which research is required. This crucial to ensure that any information collected is relevant and not wasted. A failure at this stage to adequately define the problem will result in wasted effort later. As well as formulating an aim, specific research questions (objectives) should be stipulated at the outset. It is these objectives which will determine the type of information required.
2. Investigate available sources
There is little point embarking upon a research program involving the collection of primary data if information is already available. Therefore the next step is to seek out the information which is available. This will involve a trawl of internal data generated and recorded by the organization and an examination of secondary resources of data available. Such information should then be assessed to establish the extent to which the research questions can be tackled using this information alone. It may well be the case that a partial answer is provided but that further research is needed to satisfy the full objective.
3. Determine research plan
Once all available sources of data have been evaluated, a plan is formulated to identify what further information is required and how it should be collected. This will involve generating hypotheses to be tested and determining the manner in which information is to be collected (methodology). Methods that may be used include surveys, interviews and observation.
4. Data collection
Upon development of a research plan, data should be collected using the method(s) selected. During the stage of the process, great care should be taken to avoid bias which if introduced could render any results meaningless. This is a particular problem associated with he interview and observation methods.
5. Data Analysis
The methods used and the type of information collected will determine the analysis needed. Foe example, qualitative information will require a different type of analysis to information of a more quantitative nature. While the former may involve some sort of content analysis, the latter will almost certainly involve statistical analysis whether descriptive or inferential. The increasing application of computer programs to data analysis has quickened the actual process of number crunching although time still has to be spent on preparing the data for analysis. A general rule in the analysis of data is to begin with the simple before moving onto the more complicated.
6. Present research result
Information needs to be tabulated and interpreted such that recommendations can be made regarding an appropriate course of action to take. This will almost certainly involve the presentation of a report which summarize the results of the research thereby enabling the management of the organization to male decision based on the newly acquired information. The importance o such information, and in particular in which it is collected, is thus evident.
HOSPITALITY AND TOURISM INDUSTRY
DISKUSI ON HOSPITALITY
1. Ramah dan perilaku murah hati terhadap tamu
2. Layanan yang disediakan oleh organisasi untuk tamu, pelanggan, dll
3. Keramahtamahan adalah sebuah kata yang telah datang ke dalam penggunaan komersial umum
4. Pada awal penggunaan umum, perhotelan memiliki makna yang lebih luas, menyampaikan penganugerahan dari persahabatan dan kepercayaan, dan bahkan bantalan di dalamnya petunjuk tugas suci
5. Keramahtamahan ramah dan murah hati penerimaan dan hiburan para tamu atau orang asing
6. Beberapa kata-kata yang mirip dengan perhotelan adalah keanggunan, sopan santun, ramah, hangat, keramahan, dan kemurahan hati
7. Para tamu dari suatu bentuk usaha perhotelan berada dalam hubungan saling percaya dengan tuan rumah
8. Keramahtamahan adalah hubungan layanan yang berarti bahwa interaksi antara satu individu dan lainnya
9. Keramahtamahan melibatkan pertimbangan dan pelayanan setiap tamu sebagai individu
10. Keramahatamahan adalah keterampilan orang yang harus dipelajari dan disempurnakan
11.Keramahatamahan dengan demikian seni yang menyediakan jasa tidak berwujud dinilai
12. Pariwisata terkait dengan keramahtamahan, itu adalah ilmu, seni dan bisnis untuk menarik dan transportasi pengunjung, menampung mereka, dan ramah melayani kebutuhan dan keinginannya
13. Jadi konsep pariwisata termasuk perhotelan
14. Konsep perhotelan dan pariwisata sangat erat yang satu tidak bisa ada tanpa yang lain
Keramahtamahan dan Pariwisata
Keramahtamahan meliputi:
Akomodasi Hotel / motel Kenyamanan dan tema .
Catering untuk Resorts. Seperti sekolah, rumah penjara
Keramahtamahan dan Pariwisata meliputi:
Seperti taman hotel, taman Caravan
kondominium tempat tidur & seperti sarapan
liburan unit sebagai maskapai penerbangan, pelatih, Kasino, Casino kapal
Pariwisata meliputi:
lembaga-lembaga seperti outlet seperti Restoran Ritel
sakit Konvensi pusat toko bebas bea acara. Transportasi, pelatih.
1. Ramah dan perilaku murah hati terhadap tamu
2. Layanan yang disediakan oleh organisasi untuk tamu, pelanggan, dll
3. Keramahtamahan adalah sebuah kata yang telah datang ke dalam penggunaan komersial umum
4. Pada awal penggunaan umum, perhotelan memiliki makna yang lebih luas, menyampaikan penganugerahan dari persahabatan dan kepercayaan, dan bahkan bantalan di dalamnya petunjuk tugas suci
5. Keramahtamahan ramah dan murah hati penerimaan dan hiburan para tamu atau orang asing
6. Beberapa kata-kata yang mirip dengan perhotelan adalah keanggunan, sopan santun, ramah, hangat, keramahan, dan kemurahan hati
7. Para tamu dari suatu bentuk usaha perhotelan berada dalam hubungan saling percaya dengan tuan rumah
8. Keramahtamahan adalah hubungan layanan yang berarti bahwa interaksi antara satu individu dan lainnya
9. Keramahtamahan melibatkan pertimbangan dan pelayanan setiap tamu sebagai individu
10. Keramahatamahan adalah keterampilan orang yang harus dipelajari dan disempurnakan
11.Keramahatamahan dengan demikian seni yang menyediakan jasa tidak berwujud dinilai
12. Pariwisata terkait dengan keramahtamahan, itu adalah ilmu, seni dan bisnis untuk menarik dan transportasi pengunjung, menampung mereka, dan ramah melayani kebutuhan dan keinginannya
13. Jadi konsep pariwisata termasuk perhotelan
14. Konsep perhotelan dan pariwisata sangat erat yang satu tidak bisa ada tanpa yang lain
Keramahtamahan dan Pariwisata
Keramahtamahan meliputi:
Akomodasi Hotel / motel Kenyamanan dan tema .
Catering untuk Resorts. Seperti sekolah, rumah penjara
Keramahtamahan dan Pariwisata meliputi:
Seperti taman hotel, taman Caravan
kondominium tempat tidur & seperti sarapan
liburan unit sebagai maskapai penerbangan, pelatih, Kasino, Casino kapal
Pariwisata meliputi:
lembaga-lembaga seperti outlet seperti Restoran Ritel
sakit Konvensi pusat toko bebas bea acara. Transportasi, pelatih.
Pro Poor Tourism
PPT tidak lain bentuk pariwisata sebagai kebanyakan orang cenderung berpikir tetapi merupakan suatu pendekatan yang bertujuan untuk memanfaatkan pariwisata sebagai alat strategis untuk mengurangi kemiskinan antara masyarakat yang terpinggirkan. Setiap bentuk pariwisata dapat memberikan kontribusi bagi pengentasan kemiskinan. Agar hal ini terjadi, cara-cara khusus perlu diidentifikasi di mana bisnis pariwisata serta wisatawan dapat secara langsung dan tidak langsung menghasilkan manfaat bagi masyarakat miskin. Inilah yang Pro-Miskin Pariwisata (PPT) adalah semua tentang. PPT dapat didefinisikan sebagai pariwisata yang memberikan keuntungan bersih bagi masyarakat miskin. PPT bukanlah produk tertentu atau sektor pariwisata. Hal ini tidak sama dengan eko-wisata atau pariwisata berbasis masyarakat, walaupun bentuk-bentuk pariwisata dapat berpihak pada masyarakat miskin, yakni mereka dapat membawa keuntungan bersih bagi masyarakat miskin.
Pada dasarnya, PPT adalah pendekatan yang menyeluruh untuk pengembangan pariwisata dan manajemen yang bertujuan untuk membuka kesempatan bagi masyarakat miskin untuk memperoleh manfaat dari pariwisata. Ada tumpang tindih antara PPT dan pariwisata berkelanjutan. Yang terakhir ini mengacu pada pariwisata yang mengarah ke pengelolaan seluruh sumber daya sedemikian rupa sehingga kebutuhan ekonomi, sosial, dan estetika dapat terpenuhi dengan tetap menjaga integritas budaya, proses ekologi penting, keanekaragaman hayati dan sistem pendukung kehidupan. Dorongan utama adalah tentang kelestarian lingkungan. Manfaat sosial hanya salah satu aspek keberlanjutan, sedangkan untuk kemiskinan PPT adalah fokus utama dan kelestarian lingkungan merupakan sarana untuk mencapai tujuan itu. Pariwisata dan pengurangan kemiskinan
Pariwisata adalah industri besar dan berkembang sudah mempengaruhi jutaan orang miskin, sehingga peningkatan marjinal bisa menghasilkan manfaat besar. Selain itu, pariwisata memiliki keuntungan lebih dari sektor lain dalam kaitannya dengan pengentasan kemiskinan. Pariwisata adalah industri yang sangat beragam yang meningkatkan cakupan untuk partisipasi yang luas (misalnya sektor informal). Dalam pariwisata, pelanggan datang ke produk, menawarkan kesempatan untuk membuat penjualan tambahan (hubungan). Pariwisata lebih padat karya dari sektor lainnya, seperti manufaktur, dan mempekerjakan proporsi yang lebih tinggi dari perempuan. Pariwisata produk dapat dibangun pada sumber daya alam dan budaya yang sering beberapa beberapa aset yang miskin. Pariwisata memiliki potensi di negara dan daerah-daerah yang memiliki beberapa ekspor kompetitif lain.
Strategi untuk membuat pariwisata yang lebih berpihak kepada masyarakat miskin
a) Meningkatkan manfaat ekonomi; melalui perluasan kesempatan usaha bagi masyarakat miskin, memperluas kesempatan kerja bagi masyarakat miskin, dan meningkatkan kolektif / masyarakat berpenghasilan dan akses ke infrastruktur dan / atau jasa dasar yang dimaksudkan untuk mendukung wisata tetapi juga menguntungkan orang miskin.
b) Meningkatkan keuntungan non-ekonomi, peningkatan kapasitas, pelatihan, pemberdayaan, mengurangi dampak lingkungan pariwisata pada masyarakat miskin, dan menangani dampak sosial dan budaya pariwisata.
c) Kebijakan / proses reformasi, membangun kebijakan yang lebih mendukung dan kerangka perencanaan, peningkatan partisipasi, dan membawa sektor swasta ke dalam kemitraan pro-kaum miskin.
Pada dasarnya, PPT adalah pendekatan yang menyeluruh untuk pengembangan pariwisata dan manajemen yang bertujuan untuk membuka kesempatan bagi masyarakat miskin untuk memperoleh manfaat dari pariwisata. Ada tumpang tindih antara PPT dan pariwisata berkelanjutan. Yang terakhir ini mengacu pada pariwisata yang mengarah ke pengelolaan seluruh sumber daya sedemikian rupa sehingga kebutuhan ekonomi, sosial, dan estetika dapat terpenuhi dengan tetap menjaga integritas budaya, proses ekologi penting, keanekaragaman hayati dan sistem pendukung kehidupan. Dorongan utama adalah tentang kelestarian lingkungan. Manfaat sosial hanya salah satu aspek keberlanjutan, sedangkan untuk kemiskinan PPT adalah fokus utama dan kelestarian lingkungan merupakan sarana untuk mencapai tujuan itu. Pariwisata dan pengurangan kemiskinan
Pariwisata adalah industri besar dan berkembang sudah mempengaruhi jutaan orang miskin, sehingga peningkatan marjinal bisa menghasilkan manfaat besar. Selain itu, pariwisata memiliki keuntungan lebih dari sektor lain dalam kaitannya dengan pengentasan kemiskinan. Pariwisata adalah industri yang sangat beragam yang meningkatkan cakupan untuk partisipasi yang luas (misalnya sektor informal). Dalam pariwisata, pelanggan datang ke produk, menawarkan kesempatan untuk membuat penjualan tambahan (hubungan). Pariwisata lebih padat karya dari sektor lainnya, seperti manufaktur, dan mempekerjakan proporsi yang lebih tinggi dari perempuan. Pariwisata produk dapat dibangun pada sumber daya alam dan budaya yang sering beberapa beberapa aset yang miskin. Pariwisata memiliki potensi di negara dan daerah-daerah yang memiliki beberapa ekspor kompetitif lain.
Strategi untuk membuat pariwisata yang lebih berpihak kepada masyarakat miskin
a) Meningkatkan manfaat ekonomi; melalui perluasan kesempatan usaha bagi masyarakat miskin, memperluas kesempatan kerja bagi masyarakat miskin, dan meningkatkan kolektif / masyarakat berpenghasilan dan akses ke infrastruktur dan / atau jasa dasar yang dimaksudkan untuk mendukung wisata tetapi juga menguntungkan orang miskin.
b) Meningkatkan keuntungan non-ekonomi, peningkatan kapasitas, pelatihan, pemberdayaan, mengurangi dampak lingkungan pariwisata pada masyarakat miskin, dan menangani dampak sosial dan budaya pariwisata.
c) Kebijakan / proses reformasi, membangun kebijakan yang lebih mendukung dan kerangka perencanaan, peningkatan partisipasi, dan membawa sektor swasta ke dalam kemitraan pro-kaum miskin.
Selasa, 07 Desember 2010
Types Of Meetings
National and Regional Sales Meetings
Rapat perusahaan yang paling terkenal, dan salah satu sektor terbesar di pasar rapat perusahaan, adalah pertemuan penjualan. Organisasi penjualan nasional membuatnya menjadi sesuatu alami untuk rapat. Kejadian-kejadian ini tersebar ke seluruh negera. Dengan produk-produk baru dan perkembangan penjualan baru muncul sepanjang waktu, ada kebutuhan secara konstan untuk bertatap muka dengan tim penjualan, di setiap tingkatan. Ada pertemuan penjualan nasional dengan kehadiran semua orang, pertemuan manajer penjualan regional, dan pertemuan penjualan regional yang dijalankan oleh manajer penjualan regional.
Di samping itu uang yang sama dan memaksimalkan produktivitas perusahaan, banyak perusahaan sekarang ini menggabungkan pertemuan atau mengadakan pertemuan yang berbeda back-to-back pada properti yang sama. Ketika perusahaan menggunakan hotel yang sama untuk pertemuan back-to-back, mereka tidak hanya menghemat kamar hotel, makanan dan minuman dan biaya staf di tempat, tetapi mereka juga dapat menghemat uang dengan menggunakan off-site pada tempat yang sama, hiburan, speaker , perlatan produksi dan transportasi darat.
Dalam beberapa kasus, perusahaan akan menggabungkan sebuah pertemuan penjualan yang besar dengan pertemuan kecil baik sehari sebelum atau sehari sesudah “peristiwa utama/main event". Dalam kasus lain, perusahaan menggunakan fasilitas yang sama untuk pertemuan pelatihan dan perjalanan insentif. David Lutz, presiden Twinsburg, Ohio berbasis rapat perencanaan yang matang, Conferon, mengatakan:
“We’re seeing it (combining meetings) happen to a much greater degree than ever before, and we’re seeing it across industry segments”
Kehadiran pada rapat penjualan nasional rata-rata sekitar 150 selama tiga sampai empat hari. Pertemuan penjualan daerah yang lebih kecil, rata-rata 65 dari dua sampai tiga hari.
Alasan untuk pertemuan penjualan yang banyak, sering disetujui dengan beberapa tujuan. Pertemuan penjualan tahunan mungkin melibatkan pengenalan produk baru, kebijakan perusahaan baru dan menyarankan teknik penjualan untuk mengatasi masalah-masalah, atau hal ini mungkin hanya menjadi pembangun moral dan perangsang untuk tutup tahun yang sukses dan untuk memulai pekerjaan untuk berikutnya. Pertemuan Penjualan datang dalam semua ukuran, setiap saat sepanjang tahun, dan semua maksud baik, biasa, pengulangan bisnis untuk hotel.
Pertemuan penjualan pada umumnya dipentaskan dan dikendalikan oleh departemen penjualan dan pemasaran oleh masing-masing divisi perusahaan.
New Product Introduction/Dealer Meetings
Penjualan eksekutif sering mengadakan acara nasional dan daerah untuk bertemu dengan dealer atau distributor. Perkenalan produk baru sangat penting dalam pertemuan tersebut. Pengenalan dari penjualan baru dan kampanye iklan panggilan untuk membawa pesan keluar ke daerah-daerah pedalaman. Jantung penjualan dan filsafat pemasaran adalah pertama yaitu menjual staf sendiri dan kemudian distributor dan dealer dan staf mereka, dan mereka bekerja sampai ke tingkatan baru dari antusiasme. Ini hasil pendekatan dalam berbagai pertemuan di seluruh negara.
Seperti dalam kasus sales meetings, rapat dealer menjadi sangat kecil, seperti resepsi koktail untuk selusin atau lebih dari satu malam, atau urusan besar yang melibatkan ribuan dan berjalan selama tiga sampai lima hari. Ford Motor Company menghabiskan beberapa juta dolar untuk jenis panggung pertunjukan hidup Broadway, dikombinasikan dengan presentasi multimedia, di Las Vegas Convention Center. Urusan tersebut disebut untuk beberapa hari dari pelatihan dan selama dua minggu back-to-back anggaran penerbangan dari seluruh bagian negara. Layak produksi di Broadway, namun hanya berjalan dua minggu. Jika tujuan dari pertemuan ini adalah dicapai, pertemuan sukses dan biaya diterima sebagai sesuatu yang diperlukan dan bermanfaat.
Dealer Meetings, dihadiri oleh personil penjualan, juga menarik puncak manajemen perusahaan, pemegang saham dan pers. Karena pertemuan ini sering "gala affairs," mereka memberikan kesempatan baik untuk "show off" perlengkapan dan buku bisnis tambahan baik dari personil perusahaan maupun dari peserta. Tidak ada presentasi penjualan yang lebih baik dari keberhasilan pelaksanaan pertemuan di tempat. Ini adalah kesempatan untuk menampilkan hotel yang terbaik.
Professional/Technical Meetings
Kebutuhan untuk memperbarui tenaga teknis meningkat setiap tahunnya. Sulit untuk membayangkan volume dari pembangunan teknis dan inovasi. Pada tahun lalu hanya 100 tahun - hanya empat generasi - manusia menciptakan mobil, pesawat, pesawat angkasa, laser, dan transistor. Dan insinyur atau ilmuwan tidak mampu untuk berhenti belajar atau ia akan tua. Untuk memberikan beberapa gagasan tentang ruang lingkup, General Electric memiliki beberapa 30,000 insinyur, yang merupakan investasi besar dalam bakat teknis yang memerlukan konstan up-dating. Ini adalah sumber daya yang perlu dijaga terhadap personil yang tua.
Perusahaan profesional / pertemuan teknis sering mengambil seminar dan lokakarya. konsultan Independen, pendidik dan bahkan vendor diundang untuk menunjukkan dan kuliah.
Management Meetings
Sama seperti penjualan dan tenaga teknis bertemu, begitu juga semua tingkat eksekutif. Far-flung organization berarti bahwa ada kebutuhan eksekutif untuk diskusi bersama-sama.
Pertemuan tersebut dapat menjadi sesuatu yang rutin, seperti rapat dewan, atau dapat disebut sebagai tanggapan terhadap situasi khusus. Ini biasanya rapat kecil, tapi mereka minta yang terbaik di akomodasi dan pelayanan. Karakteristik penting dari pertemuan tersebut untuk tenaga penjualan hotel adalah bahwa setiap peserta adalah pelanggan potensial untuk pertemuan dengan divisi sendiri atau perusahaan.
Manajemen pertemuan terakhir yang paling sering dua hari dan tidak mengikuti aturan lokasi khusus, mulai dari lokasi pusat kota atau bandara yang nyaman untuk resort dan penginapan.
Training Meetings
Pelatihan personil pada semua tingkat merupakan kegiatan penting dari perusahaan yang besar. Perusahaan dapat melakukan pelatihan dalam keterampilan teknis seperti pengelasan, perbaikan dan pemeliharaan mesin. Sistem komputer yang menghasilkan lebih banyak sesi pelatihan. Penjualan personil menerima pelatihan, seperti yang dilakukan eksekutif.
Sekitar setengah dari direksi melaksanakan program pelatihan dari lokasi perusahaan. Pertemuan ini diadakan pelatihan secara teratur dan biasanya berjalan sekitar tiga hari. Peserta biasanya sedikit. Sebagian besar kelompok pelatihan berjumlah kurang dari 100, dan sebagian besar mendekati 60. Sepuluh sampai 15 kelompok sama sekali tidak langka, sehingga hotel kecil bisa menangani pertemuan tersebut.
Itu tidak berarti bahwa pelatihan direksi puas hanya dengan setiap fasilitas, mereka memiliki kriteria perusahaan. Perlakuan mereka, namun, berurusan dengan kelompok-kelompok kecil lebih mudah diakomodasi. Mereka ingin ruang pertemuan dengan dinding permanen bukan screen deviders, ruang yang baik untuk digunakan audiovisual, akses mudah ke ruang pertemuan tanpa gangguan dari kegiatan hotel lainnya, dan layanan prompt untuk fungsi makanan seperti minuman dan istirahat makan siang. Kamar Terang dan berventilasi baik dengan ruang yang cukup baik untuk ruang kelas atau tempat duduk berbentuk U (sering kali ada preferensiuntuk ekstra lebar 24 - atau 30-inci), dan ruang tamu dengan penerangan yang baik di ruang kerja sangat menarik untuk perencana pertemuan pelatihan.
Pelatihan direksi tidak perlu lokasi yang prestisius dan mengesankan. Mereka lebih cenderung memilih hotel yang nyaman untuk bandara, jalan tol dan parkir. Pelatihan direksi tidak membutuhkan untuk mengganti lokasi untuk merangsang kehadiran atau ketertarikan. Mereka membuat pelanggan yang berkualitas karena mereka cenderung kembali ke hotel yang bekerja dengan baik. Ketergantungan, harga yang wajar dan pelayanan yang baik terhitung semua yang terhadap bisnis berulang.
Banyak hotel dan motel memiliki pekerjaan yang baik dengan berbagai macam bisnis, sampai titik memiliki komitmen permanen dari ruang pertemuan dan penggunaan yang konsisten dari sejumlah angka minimum dari kamar tamu oleh sebuah perusahaan tunggal. Menemukan bisnis yang baik karena pelatih sering memanggil untuk membuat hal serupa oleh tim di pusat lokasi di seluruh negara.
Bisnis reguler pemesanan juga dapat mengambil personil ketika berkenalan dengan properti saat menghadiri sesi pelatihan.
Sebuah karakteristik aneh dari pertemuan pelatihan adalah keengganan menggunakan istilah pelatihan. Pada tingkat yang lebih rendah, karyawan mencari pelatihan dan akan menganggapnya sebagai keuntungan tambahan dan menempel dengan majikan yang menawarkannya. Tapi penjualan dan orang-orang tingkat menengah membenci berpikir bahwa mereka perlu pengembangan lebih lanjut. Situasi ini disingkirkan oleh kebijaksanaan, jadi jangan terkejut melihat lokakarya, seminar, atau pengembangan manajemen atau hanya pertemuan yang dipesan oleh direktur pelatihan.
Posisi direktur pelatihan telah diperluas di banyak perusahaan selama bertahun-tahun. Hari ini, Anda mungkin menemukan kunci pembuat keputusan Anda di bawah keterlibatan judul refleksi dengan sumber daya manusia.
Stockholder/Public Meetings
Perusahaan merasa perlu mengadakan pertemuan untuk non-karyawan. Ini biasanya jatuh ke dalam kategori pemegang saham / rapat umum. Rapat umum pemegang saham tahunan dapat berkisar dari formalitas yang dihadiri oleh sedikit pemegang untuk active one-day melibatkan angka yang baik, dengan istirahat makan siang dan penyegaran. Hal ini tampaknya berbeda dengan iklim ekonomi.
Public Relations dan hubungan departemen industri juga mengadakan pertemuan dan pameran untuk menceritakan kisah mereka. Mereka juga, menambahkan sedikit untuk meningkatkan jumlah rapat perusahaan.
Incentive Meetings
Setiap tahun, jutaan orang yang mampu melebihi target bisnisnya dihadiahi perjalanan – perjalanan secara kolektif rata-rata mendekati $6 milyar untuk industri perjalanan. Hampir 45% dari angka tersebut dihabiskan hanya untuk hotel. Meeting termasuk dalam 80% dari total perjalanan insentif yang disebut insentif meeting.
Para pelaku insentif bisa dari supplier, dealer, pelanggan, bagian penjualan, atau karyawan lainnya. Mereka harus berkualitas dalam suatu hal untuk berpartisipasi.
Apa yang diinginkan pelanggan insentif? Secara keseluruhan, mereka mencari pelayanan kelas satu. Perusahaan menawarkan perjalanan ini sebagai hadiah bagi yang terbaik, sehingga mereka ingin diperlakukan secara spesial.
Untuk hotel yang mampu menyediakan apa yang pelanggan inginkan, maka keuntungan akan diperolehnya. Pertama, booking dijamin. Ini berarti bahwa prediksi yang mudah dan faktor balik modal yang paling minimum dibandingkan pasar yang lain. Kedua, anggota insentif biasanya menggunakan fasilitas hotel, seperti restoran, bar, dan pelayanan kamar (room service). Ketiga, insentif meeting memiliki pendapatan rata-rata yang tinggi, dengan tingkat hunian dua kali dari biasanya, dan mereka menghabiskan uang lebih banyak pada perjamuan (banquet) daripada segmen meeting lainnya. Karena ini adalah pasar yang sangat menguntungkan, diskusi lebih lanjut akan dibahas pada bab selanjutnya.
Rapat perusahaan yang paling terkenal, dan salah satu sektor terbesar di pasar rapat perusahaan, adalah pertemuan penjualan. Organisasi penjualan nasional membuatnya menjadi sesuatu alami untuk rapat. Kejadian-kejadian ini tersebar ke seluruh negera. Dengan produk-produk baru dan perkembangan penjualan baru muncul sepanjang waktu, ada kebutuhan secara konstan untuk bertatap muka dengan tim penjualan, di setiap tingkatan. Ada pertemuan penjualan nasional dengan kehadiran semua orang, pertemuan manajer penjualan regional, dan pertemuan penjualan regional yang dijalankan oleh manajer penjualan regional.
Di samping itu uang yang sama dan memaksimalkan produktivitas perusahaan, banyak perusahaan sekarang ini menggabungkan pertemuan atau mengadakan pertemuan yang berbeda back-to-back pada properti yang sama. Ketika perusahaan menggunakan hotel yang sama untuk pertemuan back-to-back, mereka tidak hanya menghemat kamar hotel, makanan dan minuman dan biaya staf di tempat, tetapi mereka juga dapat menghemat uang dengan menggunakan off-site pada tempat yang sama, hiburan, speaker , perlatan produksi dan transportasi darat.
Dalam beberapa kasus, perusahaan akan menggabungkan sebuah pertemuan penjualan yang besar dengan pertemuan kecil baik sehari sebelum atau sehari sesudah “peristiwa utama/main event". Dalam kasus lain, perusahaan menggunakan fasilitas yang sama untuk pertemuan pelatihan dan perjalanan insentif. David Lutz, presiden Twinsburg, Ohio berbasis rapat perencanaan yang matang, Conferon, mengatakan:
“We’re seeing it (combining meetings) happen to a much greater degree than ever before, and we’re seeing it across industry segments”
Kehadiran pada rapat penjualan nasional rata-rata sekitar 150 selama tiga sampai empat hari. Pertemuan penjualan daerah yang lebih kecil, rata-rata 65 dari dua sampai tiga hari.
Alasan untuk pertemuan penjualan yang banyak, sering disetujui dengan beberapa tujuan. Pertemuan penjualan tahunan mungkin melibatkan pengenalan produk baru, kebijakan perusahaan baru dan menyarankan teknik penjualan untuk mengatasi masalah-masalah, atau hal ini mungkin hanya menjadi pembangun moral dan perangsang untuk tutup tahun yang sukses dan untuk memulai pekerjaan untuk berikutnya. Pertemuan Penjualan datang dalam semua ukuran, setiap saat sepanjang tahun, dan semua maksud baik, biasa, pengulangan bisnis untuk hotel.
Pertemuan penjualan pada umumnya dipentaskan dan dikendalikan oleh departemen penjualan dan pemasaran oleh masing-masing divisi perusahaan.
New Product Introduction/Dealer Meetings
Penjualan eksekutif sering mengadakan acara nasional dan daerah untuk bertemu dengan dealer atau distributor. Perkenalan produk baru sangat penting dalam pertemuan tersebut. Pengenalan dari penjualan baru dan kampanye iklan panggilan untuk membawa pesan keluar ke daerah-daerah pedalaman. Jantung penjualan dan filsafat pemasaran adalah pertama yaitu menjual staf sendiri dan kemudian distributor dan dealer dan staf mereka, dan mereka bekerja sampai ke tingkatan baru dari antusiasme. Ini hasil pendekatan dalam berbagai pertemuan di seluruh negara.
Seperti dalam kasus sales meetings, rapat dealer menjadi sangat kecil, seperti resepsi koktail untuk selusin atau lebih dari satu malam, atau urusan besar yang melibatkan ribuan dan berjalan selama tiga sampai lima hari. Ford Motor Company menghabiskan beberapa juta dolar untuk jenis panggung pertunjukan hidup Broadway, dikombinasikan dengan presentasi multimedia, di Las Vegas Convention Center. Urusan tersebut disebut untuk beberapa hari dari pelatihan dan selama dua minggu back-to-back anggaran penerbangan dari seluruh bagian negara. Layak produksi di Broadway, namun hanya berjalan dua minggu. Jika tujuan dari pertemuan ini adalah dicapai, pertemuan sukses dan biaya diterima sebagai sesuatu yang diperlukan dan bermanfaat.
Dealer Meetings, dihadiri oleh personil penjualan, juga menarik puncak manajemen perusahaan, pemegang saham dan pers. Karena pertemuan ini sering "gala affairs," mereka memberikan kesempatan baik untuk "show off" perlengkapan dan buku bisnis tambahan baik dari personil perusahaan maupun dari peserta. Tidak ada presentasi penjualan yang lebih baik dari keberhasilan pelaksanaan pertemuan di tempat. Ini adalah kesempatan untuk menampilkan hotel yang terbaik.
Professional/Technical Meetings
Kebutuhan untuk memperbarui tenaga teknis meningkat setiap tahunnya. Sulit untuk membayangkan volume dari pembangunan teknis dan inovasi. Pada tahun lalu hanya 100 tahun - hanya empat generasi - manusia menciptakan mobil, pesawat, pesawat angkasa, laser, dan transistor. Dan insinyur atau ilmuwan tidak mampu untuk berhenti belajar atau ia akan tua. Untuk memberikan beberapa gagasan tentang ruang lingkup, General Electric memiliki beberapa 30,000 insinyur, yang merupakan investasi besar dalam bakat teknis yang memerlukan konstan up-dating. Ini adalah sumber daya yang perlu dijaga terhadap personil yang tua.
Perusahaan profesional / pertemuan teknis sering mengambil seminar dan lokakarya. konsultan Independen, pendidik dan bahkan vendor diundang untuk menunjukkan dan kuliah.
Management Meetings
Sama seperti penjualan dan tenaga teknis bertemu, begitu juga semua tingkat eksekutif. Far-flung organization berarti bahwa ada kebutuhan eksekutif untuk diskusi bersama-sama.
Pertemuan tersebut dapat menjadi sesuatu yang rutin, seperti rapat dewan, atau dapat disebut sebagai tanggapan terhadap situasi khusus. Ini biasanya rapat kecil, tapi mereka minta yang terbaik di akomodasi dan pelayanan. Karakteristik penting dari pertemuan tersebut untuk tenaga penjualan hotel adalah bahwa setiap peserta adalah pelanggan potensial untuk pertemuan dengan divisi sendiri atau perusahaan.
Manajemen pertemuan terakhir yang paling sering dua hari dan tidak mengikuti aturan lokasi khusus, mulai dari lokasi pusat kota atau bandara yang nyaman untuk resort dan penginapan.
Training Meetings
Pelatihan personil pada semua tingkat merupakan kegiatan penting dari perusahaan yang besar. Perusahaan dapat melakukan pelatihan dalam keterampilan teknis seperti pengelasan, perbaikan dan pemeliharaan mesin. Sistem komputer yang menghasilkan lebih banyak sesi pelatihan. Penjualan personil menerima pelatihan, seperti yang dilakukan eksekutif.
Sekitar setengah dari direksi melaksanakan program pelatihan dari lokasi perusahaan. Pertemuan ini diadakan pelatihan secara teratur dan biasanya berjalan sekitar tiga hari. Peserta biasanya sedikit. Sebagian besar kelompok pelatihan berjumlah kurang dari 100, dan sebagian besar mendekati 60. Sepuluh sampai 15 kelompok sama sekali tidak langka, sehingga hotel kecil bisa menangani pertemuan tersebut.
Itu tidak berarti bahwa pelatihan direksi puas hanya dengan setiap fasilitas, mereka memiliki kriteria perusahaan. Perlakuan mereka, namun, berurusan dengan kelompok-kelompok kecil lebih mudah diakomodasi. Mereka ingin ruang pertemuan dengan dinding permanen bukan screen deviders, ruang yang baik untuk digunakan audiovisual, akses mudah ke ruang pertemuan tanpa gangguan dari kegiatan hotel lainnya, dan layanan prompt untuk fungsi makanan seperti minuman dan istirahat makan siang. Kamar Terang dan berventilasi baik dengan ruang yang cukup baik untuk ruang kelas atau tempat duduk berbentuk U (sering kali ada preferensiuntuk ekstra lebar 24 - atau 30-inci), dan ruang tamu dengan penerangan yang baik di ruang kerja sangat menarik untuk perencana pertemuan pelatihan.
Pelatihan direksi tidak perlu lokasi yang prestisius dan mengesankan. Mereka lebih cenderung memilih hotel yang nyaman untuk bandara, jalan tol dan parkir. Pelatihan direksi tidak membutuhkan untuk mengganti lokasi untuk merangsang kehadiran atau ketertarikan. Mereka membuat pelanggan yang berkualitas karena mereka cenderung kembali ke hotel yang bekerja dengan baik. Ketergantungan, harga yang wajar dan pelayanan yang baik terhitung semua yang terhadap bisnis berulang.
Banyak hotel dan motel memiliki pekerjaan yang baik dengan berbagai macam bisnis, sampai titik memiliki komitmen permanen dari ruang pertemuan dan penggunaan yang konsisten dari sejumlah angka minimum dari kamar tamu oleh sebuah perusahaan tunggal. Menemukan bisnis yang baik karena pelatih sering memanggil untuk membuat hal serupa oleh tim di pusat lokasi di seluruh negara.
Bisnis reguler pemesanan juga dapat mengambil personil ketika berkenalan dengan properti saat menghadiri sesi pelatihan.
Sebuah karakteristik aneh dari pertemuan pelatihan adalah keengganan menggunakan istilah pelatihan. Pada tingkat yang lebih rendah, karyawan mencari pelatihan dan akan menganggapnya sebagai keuntungan tambahan dan menempel dengan majikan yang menawarkannya. Tapi penjualan dan orang-orang tingkat menengah membenci berpikir bahwa mereka perlu pengembangan lebih lanjut. Situasi ini disingkirkan oleh kebijaksanaan, jadi jangan terkejut melihat lokakarya, seminar, atau pengembangan manajemen atau hanya pertemuan yang dipesan oleh direktur pelatihan.
Posisi direktur pelatihan telah diperluas di banyak perusahaan selama bertahun-tahun. Hari ini, Anda mungkin menemukan kunci pembuat keputusan Anda di bawah keterlibatan judul refleksi dengan sumber daya manusia.
Stockholder/Public Meetings
Perusahaan merasa perlu mengadakan pertemuan untuk non-karyawan. Ini biasanya jatuh ke dalam kategori pemegang saham / rapat umum. Rapat umum pemegang saham tahunan dapat berkisar dari formalitas yang dihadiri oleh sedikit pemegang untuk active one-day melibatkan angka yang baik, dengan istirahat makan siang dan penyegaran. Hal ini tampaknya berbeda dengan iklim ekonomi.
Public Relations dan hubungan departemen industri juga mengadakan pertemuan dan pameran untuk menceritakan kisah mereka. Mereka juga, menambahkan sedikit untuk meningkatkan jumlah rapat perusahaan.
Incentive Meetings
Setiap tahun, jutaan orang yang mampu melebihi target bisnisnya dihadiahi perjalanan – perjalanan secara kolektif rata-rata mendekati $6 milyar untuk industri perjalanan. Hampir 45% dari angka tersebut dihabiskan hanya untuk hotel. Meeting termasuk dalam 80% dari total perjalanan insentif yang disebut insentif meeting.
Para pelaku insentif bisa dari supplier, dealer, pelanggan, bagian penjualan, atau karyawan lainnya. Mereka harus berkualitas dalam suatu hal untuk berpartisipasi.
Apa yang diinginkan pelanggan insentif? Secara keseluruhan, mereka mencari pelayanan kelas satu. Perusahaan menawarkan perjalanan ini sebagai hadiah bagi yang terbaik, sehingga mereka ingin diperlakukan secara spesial.
Untuk hotel yang mampu menyediakan apa yang pelanggan inginkan, maka keuntungan akan diperolehnya. Pertama, booking dijamin. Ini berarti bahwa prediksi yang mudah dan faktor balik modal yang paling minimum dibandingkan pasar yang lain. Kedua, anggota insentif biasanya menggunakan fasilitas hotel, seperti restoran, bar, dan pelayanan kamar (room service). Ketiga, insentif meeting memiliki pendapatan rata-rata yang tinggi, dengan tingkat hunian dua kali dari biasanya, dan mereka menghabiskan uang lebih banyak pada perjamuan (banquet) daripada segmen meeting lainnya. Karena ini adalah pasar yang sangat menguntungkan, diskusi lebih lanjut akan dibahas pada bab selanjutnya.
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